Aqueous film-forming foams (AFFF) containing per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) were historically used to extinguish hydrocarbon fires. PFAS-free alternatives for fire suppression, known as firefighting foams (F3), have been developed. This project assessed the relative toxicity of candidate F3 and a reference product in various marine and freshwater species.

Larval Fathead Minnows are Exposed to Test Products at a Variety of Concentrations

This project targeted four distinct research tasks: 

1. Use non-targeted approaches (chemical analysis) to identify multiple ions/fragments for each AFFF and F3 and use this information to develop a targeted liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry protocol to assist in evaluating exposure. 
2. Determine acute toxicity thresholds (LC50 values) for freshwater and marine taxa exposed to F3 products. 
3. Use the acute toxicity thresholds to evaluate the possible persistence of effects as F3 products age. 
4. Determine chronic/sublethal AFFF and F3 toxicity thresholds associated with growth or reproduction in marine and freshwater taxa.

Chemical markers were selected based on the non-targeted analysis and were used to correlate nominal and measured concentrations. Chemical markers were also used to characterize stability of the products and revealed rapid degradation of F3 over 24-96 hours of aqueous exposure. In comparison, the PFAS-containing reference was more stable.

Based on acute toxicity thresholds, marine species were often more sensitive to the F3 products than freshwater species, and the mud snail was the most sensitive species tested. Acute toxicity of both F3 products and the reference decreased with aging. 

Several of the F3 ranked as “very high” on the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency hazard scale for chronic impacts to marine algal growth. Juvenile mysids were observed to mature more slowly relative to controls and impacts to shell growth were observed in the clam M. mercenaria. Results for these tasks in both freshwater and marine species will be used to support the decisions regarding appropriate replacement chemistries.

This work is some of the first to test the toxicity of F3 alternatives to marine and freshwater aquatic species. Importantly, although some effects were observed in aquatic organisms exposed to F3, biodegradation of ingredients were rapid. Successful implementation of this research holds profound implications for improving the management of PFAS, directly addressing mission readiness by safeguarding the warfighter and communities. (Project Completion - 2026)

Fuller, N., J.G. Suski, S. Lanasa, M.K. Chanov, D.K. Jones, D.L. Haskins, K.A. Quinlin, M.A. Wigren, J.T. Hoverman, Y.J. Choi, M.S. Sepulveda, L.S. Lee, G.R. Lotufo, A. Kennedy, L. May, A. Harmon, T. Biber, N. Melby, D.W. Moore, P.B. Key, K.W. Chung, E.F. Wirth, and T.A. Anderson. 2024. Chronic Toxicity of PFAS-Free Firefighting Foams to Aquatic Organisms. Environmental Toxicology & Chemistry, 43(11):2436-2454. doi.org/10.1002/etc.5979.

Jones, D.K., K.A. Quinlin, M.A. Wigren, Y.J. Choi, M.S. Sepúlveda, L.S. Lee, D.L. Haskins, G.R. Lotufo, A. Kennedy, L. May, A. Harmon, T. Biber, N. Melby, M.K. Chanov, M.L. Hudson, P.B. Key, K.W. Chung, D.W. Moore, J.G. Suski, E.F. Wirth, and J.T. Hoverman. 2022. Acute Toxicity of Eight Aqueous Film-Forming Foams to 14 Aquatic Species. Environmental Science & Technology, 56(10):6078-6090. doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.1c03776

Theses and Dissertations

Steward, J. 2023. The Impact of Select Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substance-Free Aqueous Film-Forming Foams on the Eastern Oyster (Crassostrea Virginica) (Master’s Thesis). College of Charleston.